Role of a Paramedic Practitioner-.com

Question: Does the organization of subcutaneous infusions of Low Molecular Weight Heparins (LMWHs) forestall Venous Thrombo-embolism (VTE) in hospitalized patients? Answer: Presentation The job of a paramedic expert in a clinical setting is a significant one that involves sufficient information and viable aptitudes. Constant expert advancement is fundamental for this gathering of experts to address the developing patterns of social insurance administrations. The essential methodology to improve abilities and information is to do essential exploration that tends to any clinical concern. Through such examination one can pick up bits of knowledge into a clinical subject that has drawn the consideration of professionals and specialists with the point of improving patient results (Bledsoe et al., 2016). The current paper is on a proposed research on the subject of counteraction of Venous thromboembolism in clinical settings. Venous thromboembolism (VTE) has been demonstrated as a significant and unfriendly inconvenience emerging in clinical settings among grown-up patients that this gathering of experts is to address (Agnelli et al. 2013). Low sub-atomic Weight Heparin ( LMWH) are anticoagulant particles that are utilized in clinical practice to address diverse patient inconveniences (Szummer et al., 2015). The connection among LMWH and VTE has been the subject of enthusiasm at present. The examination is proposed in such manner that depends on standards of exploration study strategies. The criticalness of the examination, research question, study plan and system are talked about in subtleties in the accompanying areas. Foundation Venous thromboembolism (VTE) is the illness including both pneumonic embolism (PE) and Deep vein apoplexy (DVT) that is deadly and influences hospitalized just as nonhospitalised patients. The infection is increasingly regular in hospitalized patients and repeats much of the time. It prompts long haul inconveniences, for example, post-thrombotic condition and interminable thromboembolic pneumonic hypertension (Heit et al., 2016). As opined by Grosse et al., (2016) VTE is most regular cardiovascular ailment after stroke and intense coronary condition. Schulman et al., (2017) clarified the pathophysiology behind VTE. Venous thrombi are comprised of red platelets, leucocytes and platelets that are seen as present in bound condition by fibrin. Such thrombi are shaped in the areas inside the body where harm has been endured to the vessels. Thrombi may be staying in the fringe veins or may be embolisingto the aspiratory supply routes. In fringe territory it experiences recanalisation after endogenous fibrinolysis. Hazard factors for VTE incorporate medical procedure related variables, injury and patient-related elements. A portion of the significant patient-related elements incorporate thrombophilia, weight, respiratory disappointment and cardiovascular disappointment. A portion of different components that expansion the danger of VTE incorporate break of the femur, blood transfusion, injury to the spinal rope and stun endured because of admission to emergency clinic. Low atomic weight heparin (LMWH) is a classification of anticoagulant prescriptions are being utilized broadly for forestalling blood clusters. Heparin is a polysaccharide happening normally that is fit for hindering coagulation, the procedure prompting apoplexy. Since organization of heparin should be possible subcutaneously, it licenses treatment of patient conditions identified with differing conditions (Laubli et al., 2016). One case of LMWH is Enoxaparin that goes about as an anticoagulant and examination is proceeding to comprehend the appropriateness of this particle against different infections. The atom demonstrations by authoritative to the antithrombin for shaping an intricate particle. This particle at that point demonstrations by irreversibly inactivating thickening element Xa. Enoxaparin can be utilized into unfractionated species with lesser loads by depolymerisation in the body (Rodger et every one of the., 2016). A rich pool of exploration has featured the adequacy of low sub-atomic weight heparins (LMWH) in tending to clinical difficulties. There has been a developing measure important to call attention to and comprehend the conditions that can be forestalled with the appropriate organization of LMWH. One such zone has been Venous thromboembolism the draws consideration at present. Clinicians have considered intravenous unfractionated heparin (UFH) as the standard treatment for VTE. In spite of the fact that the adequacy of this treatment has been set up across contemplates, the viability of such heparin as a preventive medicine for VTE has not been given a lot of unmistakable quality. With the rise of LMWH, its viability and wellbeing has been over and over contrasted with that of UFH. Explanation of the issue Regardless of whether Low Molecular Weight Heparins (LMWHs) when regulated as subcutaneous infusions forestalls Venous Thrombo-embolism (VTE) in hospitalized patients is the concerned exploration issue in the current case. The proposed examination is along these lines dependent on this unique circumstance and advances a PICO question to pick up bits of knowledge into this exploration subject. The PICO research question that would be tended to in the proposed examination is as per the following: Does the organization of subcutaneous infusions of Low Molecular Weight Heparins (LMWHs) forestall Venous Thrombo-embolism (VTE) in hospitalized patients? The subtleties of the PICO components are as per the following- Populace: Hospitalized grown-up patients Mediation: Use of low sub-atomic weight heparin, Enoxaparin Correlation: No treatment Result: Reduced frequency of VTE Noteworthiness of examination In spite of the fact that there has an extensive examination to comprehend the connection between organization of heparins and patient entanglements in a social insurance setting, there is an absence of appropriate investigations that set up the connection among heparins and VTE. After an investigation of the current exploration articles, it very well may be expressed that there has been no particular examination that has considered whether heparin of low sub-atomic weight can forestall VTE. Since VTE is a genuine worry in the clinical space, the chance of LMWH to go about as a preventive operator for the equivalent is to be misused ideally. The proposed research has been thought of against this foundation that would prevalently convey forward examination toward this path. The point of the proposed investigation is to complete an assessment of organization of LMWH in grown-up hospitalized patients for forestalling Venous Thrombo-embolism. Based on the exploration and further examinat ions in this line, changes can be achieved in the clinical rules for counteraction of VTE in clinical settings. The investigation would, along these lines, go about as noteworthy one that would change the course of preventive consideration gave by medical caretakers to patients admitted to emergency clinics for forestalling antagonistic results. Whenever discovered viable, LMWH can be considered as a genuine helpful development made in the drawn out avoidance of VTE. System Panneerselvam (2014) featured that system of any examination is a vital measurement that decides the adequacy of the investigation. The approach goes about as the methodical arrangement for doing investigate which can be either quantitative or subjective. The proposed investigation would be a planned, nonblinded, dynamic, randomized, controlled preliminary in any clinical setting where around 1000 surgeries are completed in a year. As opined by Miles, P and Fisher (2016) a randomized controlled preliminary is the type of logical examination that has the point of decreasing inclination while testing another type of treatment. In such an investigation, members are dispensed to the treatment gathering or the fake treatment bunch as a control in an arbitrary way. The design is that randomisation wipes out odds of choice predisposition and licenses the specialists to comprehend the effect of the treatment when contrasted with no treatment with consistent factors. The technique is profound ly solid and goes about as the most thorough logical proof in the chain of importance of proof (Panneerselvam, 2014). A nonblinded study is the one where the scientists know about the treatment that will be given to the members. Moreover, the members are additionally mindful of the treatment that is given to them (Hulbk et al., 2016). Planned examinations are those which watches for results during the investigation, relating them to any factor that is considered for the investigation (Parkin et al., 2017). Study Design Members Persistent information would be gathered for physical assessment, clinical history, blood testing and duplex assessment. Patients over the age of 18 and underneath the age of 80 years would be considered for the investigation. The patients would additionally required to experience medical procedure. The hazard evaluation model for the investigation to require the task of every patient to an absolute hazard factor score. This coud be then ordered into low, moderate, high and most noteworthy scores. Subjects would be seen as having low, high and higher hazard for VTE would be rejected from the investigation. Patients will be barred from the examination on the off chance that they are seen as dying. Other rejection models would incorporate noteworthy liver infection, requirement for anticoagulation treatment, pregnancy and breastfeeding, utilization of fibrinolytic treatment and utilization of HIV protease inhibitors. Factual computation would be accomplished for settling on the example size with an equivalent number of male and female members. The investigation members would be partitioned into two gatherings. In the main gathering, members would be given Enoxaparin, a regularly utilized LMWH, subcutaneously once day by day for ten days. The members would be considered for postoperative thromboprophylaxis comprising of pressure stockings and early assembly. For the subsequent gathering, no Enoxaparin would be managed; this gathering would go about as the benchmark group. Every member would be randomized to the single treatment with the assistance of haphazardly permuted squares. Preoperative assessment Sex, age and clinical comorbidities of the patient, for example, renal deficiency, diabetes, congestive coronary illness, dynamic danger, the incessant pneumonic malady would be gone into a specific database. Presenc

The Spanish Inquistition Essay -- essays research papers fc

Ferdinand and Isabella utilized the Inquisition to kill resistance in Spain. Their considerations were that by dispensing with the Jews, Muslims, and New Christians in Spain they would pick up solidarity, riches, and influence. They needed to make a Christian and just a Christian Spain.      Since Ferdinand and Isabella were hitched they strived to make Spain an entirety. With Ferdinand administering Aragon and Isabella administering Castile they joined Spain as one. Before long Ferdinand and Isabella had the areas of Granada and Portugal as a major aspect of Spain. In any case, Ferdinand and Isabella needed to build their position over their realm through religion too. Ferdinand new that the congregation controlled a lot of land and furthermore served critical jobs in the political framework, he took these significant things into significant thought. Isabella then again, â€Å"†¦had an authentic worry for strict change and had faith in their obligation regarding the profound existence of their subjects and people.†(Ovid 3). Ferdinand and Isabella didn’t consider utilizing the Inquisition to sanitize Spain until a cleric named Tomas de Torquemada drew it out into the open. Torquemada was Isabella’s questioner or profound pioneer. Torquemada persuaded Ferdinand and Isabella that once the Inquisition was set up they could dispose of all non-Catholic devotees. He paid off them with the idea that they,â€Å"†¦could use it to harden the matchless quality of Catholicism in Spanish life†¦the examination would guarantee them con...

Meal Support in the Treatment of Eating Disorders

Meal Support in the Treatment of Eating Disorders Eating Disorders Treatment Print How Meal Support Can Help Eating Disorder Recovery By Lauren Muhlheim, PsyD, CEDS facebook twitter linkedin Lauren Muhlheim, PsyD, is a certified eating disorders expert and clinical psychologist who provides cognitive behavioral psychotherapy. Learn about our editorial policy Lauren Muhlheim, PsyD, CEDS Medically reviewed by Medically reviewed by Rachel Goldman, PhD, FTOS on January 28, 2020 Rachel Goldman, PhD FTOS is a licensed psychologist, clinical assistant professor, speaker, wellness expert specializing in weight management and eating behaviors.   Learn about our Medical Review Board Rachel Goldman, PhD, FTOS on January 28, 2020 Rubberball/Getty Images More in Eating Disorders Treatment Symptoms Diagnosis Awareness and Prevention Eating disorders present a conundrum. Across the spectrum of anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, binge eating disorder, and other specified eating disorder, they all involve conditioned abnormal eating behaviors. Individuals with eating disorders are often terrified of eating or eating certain foods. This leads to an avoidance response:  many people with eating disorders avoid meals or foods they consider dangerous. However, the body must be renourished to recover, and therefore treatment requires new eating habits that will reduce the effects of malnourishment and habituate the eating disorder patient to a broader spectrum of foods. Often, the person with an eating disorder must make these changes despite persistent eating disordered thoughts and intense anxiety. Meal support is one tool that can ease the transition.? What Is Meal Support? Meal support is the provision of emotional support during meal times, focused specifically on helping the patient to consume the food on their meal plan and redirecting behaviors that sabotage eating and recovery. Meal support can be provided individually or in a group setting. It can also be provided over the phone or the internet. Treatment team members, family members, and friends may all provide meal support. Meal Support in Traditional Settings Traditionally, many patients attended residential treatment for eating disorders. Meal support has, for many years, been a major component of a hospital and residential treatment for eating disorders. In the residential or hospital setting, all meals and snacks are supervised by staff members. Typically, they are highly structured and closely supervised in order to confront eating disorder behaviors and ensure clients are eating.   Recently, treatment options have expanded to include partial hospitalization and intensive outpatient treatment programs where supervision of some meals plays a central role. However, in an era of cost-containment, many individuals with eating disorders are treated in the outpatient setting. All too often, individual outpatient therapy (consisting of 1 or 2 sessions per week with a therapist and/or dietitian) does not take the place of meal supervision in encouraging changed mealtime behaviors. Significant recovery work takes place during meals, including exposure to fear foods and the unlearning of conditioned eating disorder behaviors (restriction, slow eating, deconstructing food, cutting food into tiny pieces, taking tiny bites, etc.). During meals, irrational thoughts about food and how it works with one’s body can be confronted with reality-based ideas, again confronting the eating disorder. Innovative Newer Options In growing recognition of the centrality of food and eating to the recovery process, an emerging trend is the provision of meal support in additional settings. Recently, there have been several innovative developments in the realm of meal support for eating disorders, making this much-needed support more accessible. In Family Based Treatment (FBT), newer evidence-based outpatient treatment for adolescents with anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa, parents are charged with supervising their adolescent at family meals. The therapist or other trained health professional coaches the parents to help their adolescent to eat the foods that will nourish them back to health. Parents learn to stay calm in the face of an adolescent’s anxiety attacks and angry outbursts, supporting them through meals including foods they fear. For children attending school, schools may have a teacher or other school personnel assigned to provide meal support to students who need it and who can access school support for their disorder via IEPs (individual educational plans). Additionally, there are now outpatient providers who specialize in providing meal support via trained coaches to individuals in recovery.  Below are some examples:   Eating Disorder Recovery Specialists (EDRS) provides meal support and coaching in the home or at restaurants. They are located in many cities throughout the United States.Active Eating Disorder Recovery for Adults (AEDRA) is another program that offers individual meal support online. In these situations, meal coaching is not a substitute for, but a supplement to treatment. In many outpatient eating disorder treatment settings dietitians may also provide some meal support to their patients and may assist with other eating-related tasks such as grocery shopping, cooking, and planning menus. According to Brooke Glazer, RD who founded a meal support program, “Outpatient meal support is helpful at any stage of recovery. It can be used as prevention to keep one in ones life and out of treatment, used in conjunction with the traditional outpatient team, or used as aftercare to ensure continued success after discharge from a treatment program.  We have had success helping clients at all of these stages. A Word From Verywell If you are in treatment and are having trouble translating what you are learning into changed behaviors during meals or you are stepping down from a higher level of care, consider whether you might benefit from more support during meal times. Do not be ashamed! Seek out support from friends, family members, or formal meal support coaches. Facing feared situations with support facilitates both understanding and the recovery process. It could make a big difference in your recovery.

Overview of the Aztec Empire - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 5 Words: 1392 Downloads: 9 Date added: 2019/08/06 Category History Essay Level High school Topics: Aztecs Essay Did you like this example? From the start of the 1300s to the early 1500s, central Mexico was dominated by a Mesoamerican culture called the Aztecs. Previously inhibited by the Toltecs, the land left behind was marshy. While exploring the land, the Aztecs saw an eagle perched on a cactus. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Overview of the Aztec Empire" essay for you Create order This was taken as a sign to start their culture here (Aztecs). After years of growth, this community quickly grew into an empire. The Aztec empire was divided into 3 city states and many different ethnic groups and religious beliefs. These city states all had different beliefs and values, but one cultural practice that was consistent throughout was the Aztec sacrifice. Aztec culture believed it was their duty to please the gods, and that the fate of the universe depended on it. This was a big example that religion was a big part of the Aztec culture and that the Aztecs would do anything for their gods. This strength of religion caused boundaries to be set, however, also helped the downfall and eventual end of the Aztec empire. Within Aztec religion, the gods were made up of a hierarchy. Starting with 3 main gods, followed by 4 more gods and finally followed by an infinite amount of gods. Most of these gods required sacrifices. These sacrifices were very expressive of the values, beliefs and boundaries of the Aztecs. All were eligible for sacrifice, as even some gods required children. These sacrifices happened often too, as one was needed at the end of each month, which in Aztec culture, happened 18 times in each cycle. Due to this, the number of people needed to sacrifice was substantial, so there were many methods to bringing people in. First, the Aztecs would use any prisoners that they could capture from wars they fought in. But, the Aztecs didnt fight in enough wars to fulfill all the sacrificial needs. In order to get the right amount of people, the Aztecs held Flower Wars (10 Horrors of Aztec Ritual Human Sacrifice). These wars were fought by different Mesoamerican cities and was also used for comba t training. If one were to die during the war, it would be a noble death. However, during most wars, the plan was not to kill enemies but to injure. But, if any enemies were captured, they would be used for sacrifice. Next, some Aztec people believed that the act of sacrifice was holy and volunteered. In fact, some Aztec prisoners were unhappy that they could not die a noble death after being saved. This is a good depiction of how the Aztecs viewed and worshipped gods. Nevertheless, all of these sacrifices had their benefits and disadvantages. While the Aztecs were performing all of the sacrifices to sustain the universe, they were also halting the growth and expansion of their empire. At an estimated 50,000 sacrifices per year, it is interesting to think how the Aztecs would have survived if they did not execute all these people. This kind of treatment was actually necessary to complete some sacrifices. Some sacrificial festivals celebrated by the Aztecs had more implications than just a sacrifice. For example, Tlacaxipehualiztli and Toxcatl were similar in the way that they selected one man to be treated like a god. During Tlacaxipehualiztli, or The Festival of the Flaying of Men, one man is picked to dress like the Aztec god Xipe Totec, whose name translates to The Flayed One (10 Horrors of Aztec Ritual Human Sacrifice). For the 40 days leading up to the festival, the chosen one is blanketed in feathers and jewels to resemble The Flayed One. Finally, when the day of the festival arrives, the chosen one and eight other impersonators of god were killed. Following the killing, the priests would skin the corpses and die them yellow. The skins were either given to the priests to dance in or to young men who would spend the next 20 days begging. Next, the Festival of Toxcatl had special requirements based on looks to determine who could dress up like the god Tezcatlipoca. The chosen one needed to have smooth skin and straight, long hair. Once chosen, his skin would be painted black and he was given a flower crown, seashell breastplate and lots of jewelry to wear. Along with this, he was given four wives. The only thing he needed to do was go through town playing a flute and smelling flowers so the people could honor him. After 12 months, it was time for the sacrifice. The chosen one would then walk up the stairs of a great pyramid. On his walk up to the top, he would break all of his flutes. Once at the top, a priest helped lay him down. From that point on they would begin to rip his heart out of his body. Believing all of this was necessary to please the gods, everything the Aztecs did perfectly portrayed their values and beliefs. No one in their right mind would want to get their heart ripped out, but if you were an Aztec and it would please a god, anything goes. This gives a good sense to the relationship between individual and group in the Aztec community. Whi le within the smaller states in Aztec culture, warriors were the most respected. However, in the bigger picture of the community, the main goal is to please the gods. With this it was easy to find a role. In Fredrik Barths Ethnic Groups and Boundaries, he explains how when a community focuses, on what is socially effective, ethnic groups are seen as a form of social organization (Barth). In The Multicultural Riddle, Gerd Baumann says that religion provides a point of orientation, and it always points to the same objective pole. (Chegg). There is a connection between this and the Aztecs as their constant objective pole was nourishment of the gods. The Aztecs focused on pleasing and nourishing the gods, making it easy for them. This also ties into the boundaries of the Aztecs. Their boundaries expanded as far as their god needed it to. A prime example is cannibalism. Anyone today would think eating someone after you sacrificed them would be crazy; but the Aztecs accepted that because their gods allowed it. However, in The Symbolic Construction of Community, by Anthony Cohen, Cohen states that some rituals, would be unable to recognize much of it as symbolism. (Cohen). This inability causes a boundary between everyone and the Aztecs. The Aztec empire fell in the early 1500s. There were many factors to this fall, but it was coming. After the Spanish invaded, the diseases they brought wiped out 80% of the Aztec population (Aztec History). This speaks a lot about how the perceptions and actions of outsiders affected the Aztecs. Today, the Aztecs are only history to the larger world. However, the Aztecs set many examples for their predecessors. The execution of multiple city states and an excellent economy led the way. During the peak years of the Aztec empire, some Aztec markets were visited by over 50,000 people a day. This was plenty to keep the economy going steadily. However, since the Aztecs are from the 1300s to the 1500s, they did not have the socio-political boundaries of a nation state. For someone that lives in a nation state, this quote by Baumann in The Multicultural Riddle explains how the Aztecs solve their own problem. The quote says that Religious conviction is the oldest problem of the modern nation -state. (Baumann). If we are considering the Aztecs though, there is no religious problem within their entire empire. Nevertheless, the Aztec religion had its downfalls. With all the sacrifices, the Aztecs diminished what could have been a massive empire. While it was not the main reason for the end of the empire, it sure did not help that the gods required so many people. Sources The Evolution Katz, Friedrich. The Evolution of Aztec Society. Past Present, no. 13, 1958, pp. 14â€Å"25. JSTOR, JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/649866. Sacrifice Harner, Michael. The Ecological Basis for Aztec Sacrifice. American Ethnologist, vol. 4, no. 1, 1977, pp. 117â€Å"135. JSTOR, JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/643526. History Aztecs. Edited by History.com Editors, History.com, AE Television Networks, 27 Oct. 2009, www.history.com/topics/ancient-americas/aztecs. Listverse 10 Horrors Of Aztec Ritual Human Sacrifice. Listverse, Listverse, 20 Dec. 2016, listverse.com/2016/12/20/10-horrors-of-aztec-ritual-human-sacrifice/. Barth Barth, Fredrik. Ethnic Groups and Boundaries. Wavelend Press, Inc., 1998. Aztec History Aztec History. Aztec Economy, www.aztec-history.net/. Baumann The Multicultural Riddle. Routledge, 1999. [Chegg].

Interventions in child birth and the midwife obstetrician relationship Free Essay Example, 2000 words

According to Masters (2009, pp. 162), critical thinking generally involves the process of conceptualization. Before conducting this analysis, it is important to first understand what is meant by critical reflection. Critical reflection can be defined as being the ability for one to be able to clearly understand a certain given situation by properly identifying connections or patterns and then proceeding to focus on the main underlying issues before integrating them into a proper conceptual framework. Reflective thinking generally involves both the use of experience and professional training, inductive reasoning as well as creativity in the formulation of alternatives or solutions that may ordinarily not be easily identified (Hughes, 2008, pp. 2). Marshall, Raynor & Sullivan (2006, pp. 144), midwives have traditionally been able to learn from journals, attending lectures that are part of educational programs, the observation of other midwives conducting their practice as well as fro m their own clinical experiences. Reflective midwives are able to learn by a process of reflecting on their current experiences and then apply this learning that they obtain to their future practice. Marshall, Raynor & Sullivan (2006, pp. We will write a custom essay sample on Interventions in child birth and the midwife obstetrician relationship or any topic specifically for you Only $17.96 $11.86/page 1990). The purpose of this reflective analysis of interventions in childbirth and the actions of the midwife and obstetrician will be to critically analyze the incidence based on the rationale that by doing so, I will be able to clearly evaluate the various events that transpired and as such, be able to determine the best course of action that could have been undertaken, as well as identify the possible mistakes that I might have made (Koutoukidis et al. , 2013, pp. 253). The expected benefits of conducting this analysis include that by engaging in this critical reflective thinking analysis, I will be able to identify some of the possible mistakes that I might have inadvertently made. This will serve to not only aid me in better avoiding these mistakes in future, but also in making me a better future midwife (Andre & Heartfield, 2011, pp.

Abap Data Dictionary Free Essays

string(45) " to a definition of the particular database\." The ABAP Dictionary centrally describes and manages all the data definitions used in the system. The ABAP Dictionary is completely integrated in the ABAP Development Workbench. All the other components of the Workbench can actively access the definitions stored in the ABAP Dictionary. We will write a custom essay sample on Abap Data Dictionary or any similar topic only for you Order Now The ABAP Dictionary supports the definition of user-defined types (data elements, structures and table types). You can also define the structure of database objects (tables, indexes and views) in the ABAP Dictionary. These objects can then be automatically created in the database with this definition. The ABAP Dictionary also provides tools for editing screen fields, for example for assigning a field an input help (F4 help). Type definitions Structure Database objects Table DB table Data element Table type Tools Poss. values Screen F4 The most important object types in the ABAP Dictionary are tables, views, types (data elements, structures, table types), domains, search helps and lock objects. April 2001 9 BC – ABAP Dictionary ABAP Dictionary SAP AG ABAP Dictionary Purpose Data definitions (metadata) are created and managed in the ABAP Dictionary. The ABAP Dictionary permits a central description of all the data used in the system without redundancies. New or modified information is automatically provided for all the system components. This ensures data integrity, data consistency and data security. You can create the corresponding objects (tables or views) in the underlying relational database using these data definitions. The ABAP Dictionary therefore describes the logical structure of the objects used in application development and shows how they are mapped to the underlying relational database in tables or views. The ABAP Dictionary also provides standard functions for editing fields on the screen, for example for assigning a screen field an input help. What Information is Stored in the ABAP Dictionary? The most important object types in the ABAP Dictionary are tables, views, types, domains, search helps and lock objects. Tables [Page 13] are defined in the ABAP Dictionary independently of the database. A table having the same structure is then created from this table definition in the underlying database. Views [Page 97] are logical views on more than one table. The structure of the view is defined in the ABAP Dictionary. A view on the database can then be created from this structure. Types [Page 136] are used in ABAP program. The structure of a type can be defined globally in ABAP programs. Changes to a type automatically take effect in all the programs using the type. Lock objects [Page 209] are used to synchronize access to the same data by more than one user. Function modules that can be used in application programs are generated from the definition of a lock object in the ABAP Dictionary. Different fields having the same technical type can be combined in domains [Page 161]. A domain defines the value range of all table fields and structure components that refer to this domain. The ABAP Dictionary also contains the information displayed with the F1 and F4 help for a field in an input template. The documentation about the field is created for a data element [Page 138] that describes the meaning of the contents of a table field. The list of possible input values that appears for the input help is created by a foreign key [Page 19] or a search help [Page 172]. Integration in the ABAP Development Workbench The ABAP Dictionary is completely integrated in the ABAP Development Workbench. The R/3 System works interpretatively, permitting the ABAP Dictionary to be actively integrated in the development environment. Instead of the original objects, the interpreters see only internal representations of these objects. These internal representations are adjusted automatically when the system finds that changes have been made in the ABAP Dictionary. This ensures that the screen and ABAP interpreters, input help, database interface, and development tools always access current data. 10 April 2001 SAP AG BC – ABAP Dictionary ABAP Dictionary The following ABAP program lists the airline carriers (see Flight model [Page 302]) and carrier IDs contained in table SCARR. DATA: SCARR_TAB TYPE SCARR. SELECT * INTO SCARR_TAB FROM SCARR. WRITE: / SCARR_TAB-CARRID, SCARR_TAB-CARRNAME. ENDSELECT. Only structure SCARR_TAB is declared in the program. All the information about this structure, such as the field names, data types and field lengths, are copied from table SCARR, which is defined in the ABAP Dictionary. This information about table SCARR is called from the ABAP Dictionary when the program is generated. This means that the source text of the program need not be adjusted when a change is made to table SCARR, for example when the length of a table field is changed. The next time the program is called, the system automatically determines that the structure of table SCARR has changed. The program is simply regenerated, thereby retrieving up-to-date information about table SCARR from the ABAP Dictionary. ?Development environment ? Development environment ABAP Tools Data Modeler Screen Painter ABAP Dictionary ABAP Interpreter Dialog Control Interfaces Screen Interpreter Runtime environment of the application Runtime environment of the application When you work on development projects, objects of the ABAP Dictionary can be changed any number of times before being activated [Page 237] and made available to the operative components of the system. Objects can have both an active and an inactive version in the ABAP Dictionary at the same time. Inactive ABAP Dictionary objects have no effect on the runtime system (ABAP processor, database interface). This permits greater changes to several objects without impairing the April 2001 11 BC – ABAP Dictionary ABAP Dictionary SAP AG executability of the system. The objects can only be activated together when they have all been changed. 12 April 2001 SAP AG BC – ABAP Dictionary Tables Tables Tables can be defined independently of the database in the ABAP Dictionary. The fields of the table are defined with their (database-independent) data types and lengths. When the table is activated, a physical table definition is created in the database for the table definition stored in the ABAP Dictionary. The table definition is translated from the ABAP Dictionary to a definition of the particular database. You read "Abap Data Dictionary" in category "Papers" Database-independent Definition of the Tables in the ABAP Dictionary T1 T2 T3 †¦ Tn Activation program and DB UTILITY DB Definition of the tables in the database T1 T2 T3 Tn A table definition in the ABAP Dictionary contains the following components:  ·  ·  ·  · Table fields [Page 14] define the field names and data types of the fields contained in the table Foreign keys [Page 19] define the relationships between the table and other tables. Technical settings [Page 30] control how the table should be created in the database. Indexes [Page 61]: To speed up data selection, secondary indexes can be created for the table The customer can modify SAP tables with append structures [Page 69] and customizing includes [Page 68]. This kind of modification ensures that the customer enhancements are automatically merged with the new versions of the SAP tables when there is a release upgrade. See also: Creating Tables [Page 72] Making Changes to Tables [Page 83] April 2001 13 BC – ABAP Dictionary Table Fields SAP AG Table Fields You must define the following for a table field in the ABAP Dictionary:  ·  ·  ·  ·  ·  · Field name: The field name can have a maximum of 16 places and may contain letters, digits and underscores. The field name must begin with a letter. Key flag: determines whether the field should belong to the table key. Field type: data type of the field in the ABAP Dictionary. Field length: number of valid places in the field. Decimal places: number of places after the decimal point, specifying numeric data types. Short text: short text describing the meaning of the field. You can also include [Page 16] the fields of a structure in the table. Assignment of the Data Type, Field Length and Short Text You can assign the data type [Page 242], length and short text in different ays:  ·  · You directly assign the field a data type, field length (and if necessary decimal places) and short text in the table definition. You can assign the field a data element [Page 138]. The data type, field length (and decimal places) are determined from the domain of the data element. The short description of the data element is assigned to the field as a short text. Other Assignment Options  ·  ·  · C heck table: An input check for the field can be defined with a foreign key [Page 19]. This input check appears on all the screens in which the field is used. Search help assignment: A search help [Page 172] can be assigned to a field. This search help defines the input help flow on all the screens in which the field is used. Reference field and reference table [Page 15]: You must specify the table field in which the corresponding unit of measure or currency can be found for fields containing quantities (data type QUAN) or currency amounts (data type CURR). See also: Creating Tables [Page 72] 14 April 2001 SAP AG BC – ABAP Dictionary Reference Fields and Reference Tables Reference Fields and Reference Tables You must specify a reference table for fields containing quantities (data type QUAN) or currency amounts (data type CURR). This reference table must contain a field with the format for the currency key (data type CUKY) or unit of measure (data type UNIT). This field is called the reference field of the output field. The reference field can also reside in the table itself. A field is only assigned to the reference field at program runtime. For example, if a field is filled with currency amounts, the corresponding currency is determined from the assigned reference field, that is the value entered in this field at the moment defines the currency. Table Field 1 T1 Field 3 Field 2 (CURR) Reference table Field 4 Field 5 (CUKY) T2 Field 7 Field 6 Reference field Runtime T1-Field 2 1,500. 00 T2-Field 5 DEM Table SBOOK in the flight model [Page 302] contains all the flight bookings made by customers. Field FORCURAM contains the price of the booking in the customer’s currency. Field FORCURKEY of table SBOOK contains the corresponding currency key for this price. SBOOK is therefore the reference table for field FORCURAM and FORCURKEY is the reference field for field FORCURAM. April 2001 15 BC – ABAP Dictionary Reference Fields and Reference Tables SAP AG Includes In addition to listing the individual fields, you can also include the fields of another structure in tables [Page 13] and structures [Page 144]. Individual fields and includes can be mixed as required. Structure includes Table F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 F3 F4 F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 Database When an include is changed, all the tables and structures that include it are automatically adjusted. Structure A was included in table B. A new field is inserted in structure A. When structure A is activated, table B is adjusted to this change, that is the new field is also inserted there. You can assign the include a group name [Page 148] with which the group of fields in the include can be addressed as a whole in ABAP programs. Includes can also be nested, that is structure A includes structure B which in turn includes another structure C, etc. The maximum nesting depth is limited to nine. The maximum length of a path of nested includes in a table or structure is therefore nine (the table/structure itself not included). 16 April 2001 SAP AG BC – ABAP Dictionary Reference Fields and Reference Tables Table/structure U1 Include U1 U2 Include U2 U3 Maximum depth = 9 Include U8 U9 Include U9 Only flat structures [Page 144] can be included. In a flat structure, every field either refers to a data element or is directly assigned a data type, length and possibly decimal places. Only structures may be included in a table. Tables, structures and views may be included in a structure. The length of the field names is more restricted in tables than in structures. In a table, a field name may not have more than 16 places, but in a structure up to 30 places are allowed for the field name. A structure therefore can only be included in a table if none of the field names of the structure are longer than 16 places. The path of nested includes may only contain one table. Table TAB1 includes structure STRUCT1, which in turn includes structure STRUCT2. The path of the nested includes here only contains table TAB1. It is also possible to include TAB1 in a further structure STRUCT0, but no other table TAB2 may be included in TAB1 since in this case a path of nested includes would contain two tables (TAB1 and TAB2). See also: Inserting an Include [Page 85] April 2001 17 BC – ABAP Dictionary Named Includes SAP AG Named Includes If an include [Page 16] is used to define a database table or structure, a name can be assigned to the included substructure. The group of fields in the include can be addressed as a whole in ABAP programs with this name. In ABAP programs, you can either access the fields directly with – or analogously with –. You can access the fields of the group as a whole with -. Structure PERSON includes structure ADDRESS with the name ADR. ADDRESS has a field CITY. With PERSON-ADR you can address all the fields in structure ADDRESS. The included field CITY can also be addressed with PERSON-CITY or PERSON-ADR-CITY. You can include a structure more than once (e. g. in a period group). Since direct access by field name should be permitted here, the included field names must be renamed to ensure that they are unique. A suffix can be assigned to each group, extending the names of the group fields. The fields can then be addressed in ABAP programs with – or –. Structure PERSON includes structure ADDRESS twice. An address is the private address with suffix H and name ADRH. The other address is the business address with suffix W and name ADRW. You can access field CITY in the private address with PERSON-CITYH or PERSON-ADRH-CITY. The functionality of the named includes in the ABAP Dictionary corresponds to the ABAP construction INCLUDE TYPE †¦ AS †¦ RENAMING †¦ . 18 April 2001 SAP AG BC – ABAP Dictionary Foreign Keys Foreign Keys You can define the relationships between tables in the ABAP Dictionary by creating foreign keys. Using foreign keys, you can easily create value checks for input fields. Foreign keys can also be used to link several tables in a view [Page 97] or a lock object [Page 209]. Field Assignment in the Foreign Key A foreign key links two tables T1 and T2 by assigning fields of table T1 to the primary key fields of table T2. Foreign key fields Foreign key table T1 Field 1 Field 2 Field 3 Field 4 Primary key Check table Field 5 Field 6 T2 Field 7 Primary key Table T1 is called the foreign key table (dependent table) and table T2 the check table (referenced table). The pair of fields for the two tables must have the same data type and length. One field of the foreign key table therefore corresponds to each key field of the check table. This field is called the foreign key field. A foreign key permits you to assign data records in the foreign key table and check table. One record of the foreign key table uniquely identifies one record of the check table using the entries in the foreign key fields. Check Field and Value Check One of the foreign key fields is marked as the check field. This means that the foreign key relationship is maintained for this field. April 2001 19 BC – ABAP Dictionary Foreign Keys SAP AG When an entry is made in the check field, there is a check whether the check table contains a record with the key defined by the values in the foreign key fields. If this is so, the entry is valid. Otherwise the system rejects the entry. Input template for foreign key table T1 Field1 Field2 Field3 Field4 1 3 Field5 1 1 2 3 3 3 4 4 Check table T2 Field6 1 3 1 1 2 3 1 2 Field7 Text 1 Text 2 Text 3 Text 4 Text 5 Text 6 Text 7 Text 8 Input is valid since there is a corresponding record in the check table In this example the entry Field2 = 2 and Field4 = 2 would be rejected since T2 does not contain a record with the key Field5 = 2 and Field6 = 2. If you do not want to check against all the key fields of the check table, you can exclude fields of the foreign key table from the assignment of the fields to the check table with generic and constant foreign keys [Page 22]. How the Input Check Works A SELECT statement is generated from the definition of the foreign key. If an entry is made in the check field, this SELECT statement is submitted. If a suitable record of the check table is found, the entry is valid. Otherwise the entry is rejected. The corresponding SELECT statement has the following form for the foreign key table shown in the above graphic: SELECT * FROM T2 WHERE T2-FIELD5 = T1-FIELD2 AND T2-FIELD6 = T1-FIELD4. A screen entry for check field Field2 is therefore only valid if the check table contains a record with the entries made in the screen for Field2 and Field4 as key. Table SBOOK in the flight model [Page 302] contains the customer’s flight bookings for a carrier. The flight bookings can be made by a travel agency or directly at the carrier’s sales counter. If the booking was made at a counter, its number is stored together with the booking in field COUNTER in table SBOOK. 20 April 2001 SAP AG BC – ABAP Dictionary Foreign Keys You must make sure that only correct counter numbers can be entered. All the counters are entered in table SCOUNTER. The necessary value check can be defined by creating a foreign key for check field COUNTNUM. Foreign key fields Foreign key table SBOOK MANDT CARRID CONNID FLDATE CUSTOMID †¦ COUNTER †¦ CANCELED Check field Check table SCOUNTER MANDT CARRID COUNTNUM AIRPORT Key fields See also: Multi-Structured Foreign Keys [Page 29] Semantic Attributes of Foreign Keys [Page 24] Creating Foreign Keys [Page 75] April 2001 21 BC – ABAP Dictionary Generic and Constant Foreign Keys SAP AG Generic and Constant Foreign Keys It is not always advisable to check a foreign key against all the key fields of the check table. This is true for example for time-dependent check tables and for check tables whose version number is a component of the key. You can use generic foreign keys in these cases. Fields are excluded from the assignment to the key fields of the check table here. The check is only against the remaining key fields. You can also assign a constant value to a key field of the check table. In this case you only have to check against the specified constant. You can use this check if only records of the check table which contain a constant value in this key field are valid. Foreign key table FTAB Field 6 Field 7 Field 8 Field 9 Generic * Constant K Check table PTAB Field 1 Field 2 Field 3 Field 4 Field 5 Primary key The corresponding SELECT statement for the screen check has the following form for the foreign key definition in the graphic: SELECT * FROM PTAB WHERE PTAB-FIELD1 = FTAB-FIELD6 AND PTAB-FIELD3 = FTABFIELD8 AND PTAB-FIELD4 = ‘K’. An entry is only valid in check field Field6 if a record of check table PTAB exists containing the input value for Field6 in PTAB-Field1, the input value for Field8 in PTAB-Field3 and constant K in PTAB-Field4. 22 April 2001 SAP AG BC – ABAP Dictionary Generic and Constant Foreign Keys Input template for foreign key table FTAB Field 6 Field 7 Field 8 Field 9 3 30 1 B Check table PTAB Field 1 Field 2 Field 3 Field 4 Field 5 1 1 2 3 3 3 4 4 1 1 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 3 1 1 2 3 3 4 A B A K A A C C Text 1 Text 2 Text 3 Text 4 Text 5 Text 6 Text 7 Text 8 Input is valid since Field 7 and Field 9 were removed from the assignment The values entered on the screen for Field7 and Field9 are meaningless when checking against the check table. An entry with Field6 = 1, Field8 = 3 and Field9 = B would not be valid in this case since there is no record with PTAB-Field1 = 1, PTAB-Field3 = 3 and PTAB-Field4 = K in the check table! April 2001 23 BC – ABAP Dictionary Semantic Attributes of Foreign Keys SAP AG Semantic Attributes of Foreign Keys A foreign key describes a relationship between two tables. You can define this relationship more precisely by specifying the cardinality [Page 25] and type of foreign key fields [Page 26]. This information is optional and is primarily for documentary purposes. In particular, the definitions of the cardinality and type of the foreign key fields are not used in the value check for the foreign key. The definition of the semantic attributes is only sed in the following cases:  · If Key fields of a text table is selected as the type of the foreign key fields, the foreign key table is considered to be the text table [Page 27] for the check table. If a screen field is checked against a table, the key entries of the check table are normally displayed in the input help (F4 help) for this field. If there is a text table for the check table, each key entry displayed is enha nced with an explanatory text (contents of the first character-like field of the text table) in the user’s logon language. Tables can only be included in a help view [Page 115] or maintenance view [Page 117] if they are linked with a foreign key. It only makes sense to create such a help or maintenance view if for each record in the primary table of the view there is no more than one corresponding record in each secondary table of the view. The system therefore checks if the foreign key with which the tables were linked in the view have suitable cardinalities when it creates a maintenance or help view. See also Restrictions for Maintenance and Help Views [Page 119]. The foreign key between tables SBOOK and SCOUNTER ensures that only existing counters can be entered in field COUNTER (counter at which the flight was booked). See the example in Foreign Keys [Page 19] . A booking can be made at either a travel agency or at the carrier’s sales counter. If the booking is made at a travel agency, the field COUNTER of table SBOOK remains empty. The foreign key fields do not have to be filled, that is the left side of the cardinality is C. Any number of bookings may be made at each counter. There may therefore be any number of entries (bookings) in foreign key table SBOOK for each record of the check table SCOUNTER. The right side of the cardinality is therefore CN. Of course several bookings can be made for the same carrier at a counter. These bookings do not differ in their foreign key fields (MANDT, CARRID, COUNTER). The entries in the foreign key fields therefore do not uniquely identify an entry in the foreign key table SBOOK (a booking). The foreign key fields therefore have the type No key fields/candidates. 24 April 2001 SAP AG BC – ABAP Dictionary Cardinality Cardinality The cardinality (n:m) describes the foreign key relationship with regard to the number of possible dependent records (records of the foreign key table) or referenced records (records of the check table). The left side (n) of the cardinality is defined as follows:  ·  · n=1: There is exactly one record assigned to the check table for each record of the foreign key table. n=C: The foreign key table may contain records which do not correspond to any record of the check table because the foreign key field is empty. This can occur for example if the field of the foreign key table is optional, in which case it does not have to be filled. =1: There is exactly one dependent record for each record of the check table. m=C: There is at most one dependent record for each record of the check table. m=N: There is at least one dependent record for each record of the check table. m=CN: There may be any number of dependent records for each record of the check table. The right side (m) of the card inality is defined as follows:  ·  ·  ·  · April 2001 25 BC – ABAP Dictionary Type of Foreign Key Fields SAP AG Type of Foreign Key Fields The Type of foreign key fields describes what the foreign key fields in the foreign key table mean. The following types of foreign key field can be defined:  · No key fields/candidates: The foreign key fields are neither primary key fields of the foreign key table nor do they uniquely identify a record of the foreign key table (key candidates). For this reason, the foreign key fields do not (partially) identify the foreign key table. Key fields/candidates: The foreign key fields are either primary key fields of the foreign key table or they already uniquely identify a record of the foreign key table (key candidates). The foreign key fields therefore (partially) identify the foreign key table. Key fields of a text table: The foreign key table is a text table [Page 27] for the check table, that is the key of the foreign key table only differs from the key of the check table in that it has an additional language key field. This is a special case of the type Key fields/candidates.  ·  · 26 April 2001 SAP AG BC – ABAP Dictionary Text Tables Text Tables Table A is a text table of table B if the key of A comprises the key of B and an additional language key field (field of data type LANG). Table A may therefore contain explanatory text in several languages for each key entry of B. To link the key entries with the text, text table A must be linked with table B using a foreign key. Key fields of a text table must be selected here for the type of foreign key fields (see Semantic Attributes of Foreign Keys [Page 24]). Table B Key fields K1 and K2 K1 †¦ 1 1 †¦ K2 †¦ 1 2 †¦ F1 †¦ XX YY †¦ F2 †¦ YY XX †¦ Text table A for B Key fields K1, K2 and L (type LANG) K1 †¦ 1 1 1 1 †¦ K2 †¦ 1 1 2 2 †¦ L †¦ DE EN DE EN †¦ TEXT †¦ Text 1 (German) Text 1 (English) Text 2 (German) Text 2 (English) †¦ Text foreign key If table B is the check table of a field, the existing key entries of table B are displayed as possible input values when the input help (F4) is pressed. The explanatory text (contents of the first character-like non-key-field of text table A) is also displayed in the user’s logon language for each key value in table B. April 2001 27 BC – ABAP Dictionary Text Tables SAP AG Hit list if user logs on in English K1 †¦ 1 1 K2 †¦ 1 2 †¦ Text †¦ Text1 (English) (English) Text2 (English) (English) †¦ Maintenance screen Field 1 Field 2 †¦ Call the input help Field is checked against table B Only one text table can be created for table B! The system checks this when you attempt to activate a table with text foreign keys for B. 28 April 2001 SAP AG BC – ABAP Dictionary Multi-Structured Foreign Keys Multi-Structured Foreign Keys When you define a foreign key, a field of the work area that is not contained in the foreign key table can also be assigned to a check table (for example a field of another table). This is possible for all fields except for the check field. Table T2 is the check table of foreign key table T1. Field F of the work area is assigned to key field Field6 of check table T2. Foreign key table T1 Field 1 Field 2 Field 3 Field 4 Primary key Field F of work area Check table T2 Field 5 Field 6 Field 7 Primary key The corresponding SELECT statement for the input check is then: SELECT * FROM T2 WHERE T2-FIELD5 = T1-FIELD2 AND T2-FIELD6 = F. If an entry is made in field T1-Field2 (check field), this SELECT statement will be submitted. If a corresponding record is found, the entry is valid; otherwise it is rejected. If a field that is not contained in the foreign key table is assigned to a field of the check table, this field must be filled at the time of the input check. Otherwise the check always fails, and no values can be entered in the check field. April 2001 29 BC – ABAP Dictionary Technical Settings SAP AG Technical Settings The technical settings of a table define how the table will be handled when it is created in the database, that is whether the table will be buffered and whether changes to data records of the table will be logged. The most important parameters are:  ·  · Data class: The data class [Page 31] defines the physical area of the database (tablespace) in which the table should be created. Size category: The size category [Page 32] defines the size of the extents created for the table. When the table is created in the database, the required information about the memory area to be selected and the extent size is determined from the technical settings.  ·  · Buffering permission: The buffering permission [Page 33] defines whether the table may be buffered. Buffering type: If the table may be buffered, you must define a buffering type (full, singlerecord, generic). The buffering type [Page 34] defines how many table records are loaded into the buffer when a table entry is accessed. Logging: This parameter defines whether changes to the table entries should be logged. If logging [Page 41] is switched on, each change to a table record is recorded in a log table.  · The Convert to transparent table flag (transparent flag [Page 42]) is also displayed for pooled tables or for tables which were converted into transparent tables earlier on with this flag. See also: Maintaining Technical Settings [Page 77] Buffering Database Tables [Page 43] 30 April 2001 SAP AG BC – ABAP Dictionary Data Class Data Class If you choose the data class correctly, your table is automatically assigned to the correct area (tablespace or DBspace) of the database when it is created. Each data class corresponds to a physical area in which all the tables assigned to this data class are stored. There are the following data classes:  ·  ·  · APPL0 (master data): Data which is seldomly changed. An example of master data is the data contained in an address file, such as the name, address and telephone number. APPL1 (transaction data): Data that is frequently changed. An example of transaction data is the goods in a warehouse, which change after each purchase order. APPL2 (organizational data): Customizing data that is defined when the system is installed and seldomly changed. An example is the table with country codes. Two further data classes, USR and USR1, are provided for the customer. These are for user developments. The tables assigned to these data classes are stored in a tablespace for user developments. Tables in the ABAP Dictionary Master data Table 1 Table 3 Organizational data Table 2 Transaction data Table 4 Table 7 System data Table 5 Table 6 Tablespace master data Table 1 Table 3 Tablespace Org. data Table 2 Tablespace Trans. data Table 4 Table 7 Tablespace System data Table 5 Table 6 Database April 2001 31 BC – ABAP Dictionary Size Category SAP AG Size Category The size category defines the expected space required for the table in the database. You can choose a size category from 0 to 4 for your table. Each category is assigned a certain fixed memory size in the database, which depends on the database system used. When a table is created, initial space (an Initial Extent) is reserved in the database. If more space is required at a later time due to data entries, additional memory will be added depending on the selected size category. Technical settings Size category TABA 1 3 4 TABB TABC Initial First Second Extent Extent Extent TABA TABB TABC †¦ †¦ †¦ Database Selecting the correct size category prevents a large number of very small extents from being created for a table. It also prevents space from being wasted if extents which are too large are created. 32 April 2001 SAP AG BC – ABAP Dictionary Buffering Permission Buffering Permission You must define whether and how a table is buffered in the technical settings for the table. There are three possibilities here:  · Buffering not permitted: Table buffering is not permitted, for example because application programs always need the most recent data from the table or the table is changed too frequently. Buffering permitted but not activated: Buffering is permitted from the business and technical points of view. Applications which access the table execute correctly with and without table buffering. Whether or not table buffering will result in a gain in performance depends on the table size and access profile of the table (frequency of the different types of table access). Table buffering is deactivated because it is not possible to know what these values will be in the customer system. If table buffering would be advantageous for the table size and access profile of the table, you can activate it in the customer system at any time. Buffering activated: The table should be buffered. In this case you must specify a buffering type [Page 34].  ·  · See also: Buffering Database Tables [Page 43] Which Tables Should be Buffered? [Page 53] April 2001 33 BC – ABAP Dictionary Buffering Types SAP AG Buffering Types The buffering type defines which table records are loaded into the buffer of the application server when a table record is accessed. There are the following buffering types:  ·  · Full buffering [Page 35]: All the records of the table are loaded into the buffer when one record of the table is accessed. Generic buffering [Page 37]: When a record of the table is accessed, all the records having this record in the generic key fields (part of the table key that is left-justified, identified by specifying a number of key fields) are loaded into the buffer. Single-record buffering [Page 39]: Only the records of a table that are really accessed are loaded into the buffer.  · See also: Buffering Database Tables [Page 43] 34 April 2001 SAP AG BC – ABAP Dictionary Full Buffering Full Buffering With full buffering, either the entire table is in the buffer or the table is not in the buffer at all. All the records of the table are loaded into the buffer when one record of the table is read. In this example, a program reads the record highlighted in red from table SCOUNTER. If the table is fully buffered, all the records of the table are loaded into the buffer. Database table SCOUNTER MANDT CARRID COUNTNUM AIRPORT Buffer contents 001 001 001 001 001 001 001 001 001 001 001 001 001 001 AA BA BA BA BA LH LH LH LH LH LH LH LH UA 00000001 00000001 00000002 00000003 00000004 00000001 00000002 00000003 00000004 00000005 00000006 00000007 00000008 00000001 ACA ACE BER LCY LHR BER DEN FRA LCY LGW LHR MUC RTM HAM 01 001 001 001 001 001 001 001 001 001 001 001 001 001 AA BA BA BA BA LH LH LH LH LH LH LH LH UA 00000001 00000001 00000002 00000003 00000004 00000001 00000002 00000003 00000004 00000005 00000006 00000007 00000008 00000001 ACA ACE BER LCY LHR BER DEN FRA LCY LGW LHR MUC RTM HAM Application server SELECT * FROM SCOUNTER WHERE MANDT = ‘001’ AND CARRID = ‘LH†™ AND COUNTNUM = ‘00000004’. The buffered data records are sorted in the buffer by table key. Accesses to the buffered data can therefore only analyze field contents up to the last specified key field for restricting the dataset to be searched. The left-justified part of the key should therefore be as large as possible in such accesses. For example, if you do not define the first key field, the system has to scan the full table. In this case direct access to the database can be more efficient if the database has suitable secondary indexes [Page 61]. When Should you Use Full Buffering? When deciding whether a table should be fully buffered, you should take into account the size of the table, the number of read accesses, and the number of write accesses. Tables best suited to full buffering are small, read frequently, and rarely written. Full buffering is recommended in the following cases: April 2001 35 BC – ABAP Dictionary Full Buffering  · SAP AG Tables up to 30 KB in size. If a table is accessed frequently, but all accesses are read accesses, this value can be exceeded. However, you should always pay attention to the buffer utilization. Larger tables where large numbers of records are frequently accessed. If these mass accesses can be formulated with a very selective WHERE condition using a database index [Page 61], it could be better to dispense with buffering. Tables for which accesses to non-existent records are frequently submitted. Since all the table records reside in the buffer, the system can determine directly in the buffer whether or not a record exists.  ·  · 36 April 2001 SAP AG BC – ABAP Dictionary Generic Buffering Generic Buffering With generic buffering, all the records in the buffer whose generic key fields match this record are loaded when one record of the table is accessed. The generic key is a part of the primary key of the table that is left-justified. In this example, the record highlighted in red is read by a program from table SCOUNTER. If the table is generically buffered, all the records read whose generic key fields (MANDT and CARRID) agree are loaded into the buffer. Database table SCOUNTER MANDT CARRID COUNTNUM AIRPORT Buffer contents 001 001 001 001 001 001 001 001 LH LH LH LH LH LH LH LH 00000001 00000002 00000003 00000004 00000005 00000006 00000007 00000008 BER DEN FRA LCY LGW LHR MUC RTM 001 001 001 001 001 001 001 001 001 001 001 001 001 001 AA BA BA BA BA LH LH LH LH LH LH LH LH UA 00000001 00000001 00000002 00000003 00000004 00000001 00000002 00000003 00000004 00000005 00000006 00000007 00000008 00000001 ACA ACE BER LCY LHR BER DEN FRA LCY LGW LHR MUC RTM HAM Application server Generic key SELECT * FROM SCOUNTER WHERE MANDT = ‘001’ AND CARRID = ‘LH’ AND COUNTNUM = ‘00000004’. When Should you Use Full Buffering? A table should be buffered generically if only certain generic areas of the table are normally needed for processing. Client-specific, fully-buffered tables are automatically generically buffered since normally it is not possible to work in all clients at the same time on an application server. The client field is the generic key. Language-specific tables are another example where generic buffering is recommended. In general, only records of one language will be needed on an application server. In this case, the generic key includes all the key fields up to and including the language field. How Should you Define the Generic Key? In generic buffering, it is crucial to define a suitable generic key. April 2001 37 BC – ABAP Dictionary Generic Buffering SAP AG If the generic key is too small, the buffer will contain a few very large areas. During access, too much data might be loaded in the buffer. If the generic key is too large, the buffer might contain too many small generic areas. These can reduce buffer performance since there is an administrative entry for every buffered generic area. It is also possible that too many accesses will bypass the buffer and go directly to the database, since they do not fully define the generic key of the table. If there are only a few records in each generic area, it is usually better to fully buffer the table. Only 64 bytes of the generic key are used. You can specify a longer generic key, but the part of the key exceeding 64 bytes is not used to create the generic areas. Access to Buffered Data It only makes sense to generically buffer a table if the table is accessed with fully-specified generic key fields. If a field of the generic key is not assigned a value in a SELECT statement, it is read directly from the database, bypassing the buffer. If you access a generic area that is not in the buffer with a fully-specified generic key, you will access the database to load the area. If the table does not contain any records in the specified area (â€Å"No record found†), this area in the buffer is marked as non-existent. It is not necessary to access the database if this area is needed again. 8 April 2001 SAP AG BC – ABAP Dictionary Single-Record Buffering Single-Record Buffering With single-record buffering, only the records that are actually read are loaded into the buffer. Single-record buffering therefore requires less storage space in the buffer than generic and full buffering. The administrative costs in the buffer, however, are greater than for generic or f ull buffering. Considerably more database accesses are necessary to load the records than for the other buffering types. In this example, the record highlighted in red is read by a program from table SCOUNTER. If single-record buffering is selected for the table, only the record that was read is loaded into the buffer. Database table SCOUNTER MANDT CARRID COUNTNUM AIRPORT Buffer contents 001 LH 00000004 LCY 001 001 001 001 001 001 001 001 001 001 001 001 001 001 AA BA BA BA BA LH LH LH LH LH LH LH LH UA 00000001 00000001 00000002 00000003 00000004 00000001 00000002 00000003 00000004 00000005 00000006 00000007 00000008 00000001 ACA ACE BER LCY LHR BER DEN FRA LCY LGW LHR MUC RTM HAM Application server SELECT SINGLE FROM SCOUNTER WHERE MANDT = ‘001’ AND CARRID = ‘LH’ AND COUNTNUM = ‘00000004’. When Should you Use Single-Record Buffering? Single-record buffering should be used particularly for large tables where only a few records are accessed with SELECT SINGLE. The size of the records being accessed should be between 100 and 200 KB. Full buffering is usually more suitable for smaller tables that are accessed frequently. This is because only one database access is necessary to load such a table with full buffering, whereas several database accesses are necessary for single-record buffering. Access to Buffered Data All accesses that are not submitted with SELECT SINGLE go directly to the database, bypassing the buffer. This applies even if the complete key is specified in the SELECT statement. April 2001 39 BC – ABAP Dictionary Single-Record Buffering SAP AG If you access a record which is not yet buffered with SELECT SINGLE, there is a database access to load the record. This record is marked in the buffer as non-existent if the table does not contain a record with the specified key. This prevents another database access when accessing the table at a later time with the same key. 40 April 2001 SAP AG BC – ABAP Dictionary Logging Logging Using the logging flag you can define whether changes to the data records of a table should be logged. If logging is switched on, each change to an existing data record (with UPDATE, DELETE) by the user or application program is recorded in the database in a log table (DBTABPRT). ABAP Dictionary Log TAB Application transaction TAB Change a record Field 1 Field 2 Field 3 System profile †¦ rec/client =ALL †¦ TAB Field 1 Field 2 Field 3 Log table Database To switch on logging, the R/3 System must be started with a profile containing parameter rec/client. This parameter defines whether all clients or only selected clients should be logged. The parameter can have the following values: rec/client = ALL Log all clients. ec/client = 000[,†¦ ] Log the specified clients. rec/client = OFF Do not log. Logging slows down accesses that change the table. First of all, a record must be written in the log table for each change. Secondly, a number of users access this log table in parallel. This can cause lock situations although the users are working with different application tables. L ogging is independent of the update. The existing logs can be displayed with Transaction Table History (SCU3). April 2001 41 BC – ABAP Dictionary Converting Pooled Tables to Transparent Tables SAP AG Converting Pooled Tables to Transparent Tables How to cite Abap Data Dictionary, Papers

Galveston Main Wastewater Treatment Plant

Question: Discuss about theGalveston Main Wastewater Treatment Plant. Answer: Introduction Due diligence involves facilitating efficient and safe operations by using legal principles behind the courts judgment in ensuring effective decision making in the organization. In every project in engineering, the due diligence concept adopted should satisfy the legal proceedings in case an incident occurs. Due diligence seeks to provide guidance in analyzing the reliability, safety, and effectiveness of processes and equipment used in a project. It involves the evaluation of the current conditions of equipment and analyzing their remaining life span (ROBINSON 2013). These assessments include corrosion, damage caused by ruptures, technologies used by plant life components and equipments fatigue. Galveston central wastewater treatment plant, is a multiple project located in Texas, US. It deals with the different division of work; sanitation, water supply, wastewater treatment engineering, plumbing, drainage and recycling, construction services and water and sewer utilities (WORLD ENVIRONMENTAL AND WATER RESOURCES CONGRESS 2007). In the past, this project has faced risks and other violations. Vulnerability Analysis Technique This a tool that used in identifying and recognizing vulnerabilities that are present in a project or an organization. It used to assess and provide appropriate solutions to the risks affecting the organization. It helps in informing teams on preexisting faults in the project and the specific sectors they are found. It further assesses these limitations in an organization and identifies the risks that are likely to link to the constraints. This technique in a project is likely to point out hazards associated with it. Teams always use this vulnerability tool because they realize the benefits it comes with (Anon 2013). These organizations are always aware of the availability of security hazards, and they do understand the need to recognize these issues and solve them early enough. Vulnerability techniques are mainly tied to the impact of the business and are very beneficial in the performance of any project or business. This vulnerability technique works in defining the assets of the organization and the threats to the assets. For any vulnerability assessment to succeed, it involves some steps (FRANCHIN 2013). Recognizing and learning the business processes This first step involves understanding the processes in the business or organization and identifying the critical areas of business. For example, in Galveston wastewater treatment project, there is need to understand the processes that are carried out in the project and understand the key areas that could face vulnerabilities such as the competitive position in the market (ANDERSON 2013). Many companies can come up with strategies for mitigating risks by bringing all ideas to the members of the organization altogether. This member of the organization has to work together to have a clear understanding of the organization processes. Identification of applications that business processes are dependent on The second step is characterized by pointing out the applications that the critical areas of business depend upon. For example, in Galveston Wastewater Treatment Plant, one of the applications identified is that of technological control of facilities and equipment. This application is the use of equipment which is up to date as well as those in good condition (MOOSBRUGGER 2012). Discover all project facilities This step involves finding out all the facilities that are engaged in the processes in the organization. Getting to know the auxiliary facilities that are rarely used. This step aims at being able to find vulnerabilities in the equipment such as tampering and damages. Mapping the structure of the flow system This step focuses on understanding the structure of the flow system. That is both the underground and surface structures on a project. For example in the case of Galveston wastewater treatment plant, there should be a full understanding of the ground-water flow system and the hydrogeological framework involved. Identification of solutions to risks already in place In the vulnerability assessment, there need to identify the solutions that have been put into place for control of hazards already in the organization and pinpointing the risks managed (HAGIHARA, 2016). Execution of vulnerability scans After carrying out the above steps, it now the time to execute vulnerability scan to identify the opportunities and threats in the organization (CHIN, 2008). This is the final step. Organizational Assets In the vulnerability assessment, it is crucial to define the organizations assets (ADAM, 2016). Various vital success factors characterize Galveston wastewater treatment plant. In assessing the organizational assets, dependency trees are the best method to do so. These factors include: Personnel Resources This factor is the most crucial asset of the business. These staff resources determine the direction of the organization, its performance, and success. Equipment and Facilities In accessing the vulnerabilities in business, its vital to consider the equipment and facilities used in the organization to know how vulnerable to risks they are in the firm. For example, in Galveston wastewater treatment plant, the machines used in the process of sanitation should always be considered for the healthy condition, storage facilities, treatment facilities and distribution and canal systems. Consumers Loyalty This factor makes up the market assets of the organization. This asset should be put into considerations in the companys vulnerabilities assessment; this is because for a project to realize its goals it must have a broad market. Maintaining customers to your brand is important (SESSELMANN, 2016). For example, Galveston main wastewater treatment plant embarked on building more improved structures after the climate hazard to maintain their customers. Organizational Public Image The public image of an organization is a critical success factor. Consumers always consider organizations with positive brand image compared to others. Having an appealing image attracts more customers and creates awareness for the business. Thus in the vulnerability analysis, an organization reputation is essential. Capability Levels Another critical success factor in an organization is that of its ability to perform. An organization should be able to deliver its functions satisfied (OERTEL, 2010). This element determines its productivity, work output, and performance. This factor may be vulnerable to some risks. Threats Facing the Organization They are various threats that have faced the Galveston central wastewater treatment plant in the past, and this organization is still mitigating the risks realized by this threats. These threats include; Natural Hazards Galveston Texas was struck by Hurricane in 2008 leading to main failures in the structures and equipment in the wastewater treatment plant. This failure primarily affected the functionality of the treatment plant and services were not offered for a while. This threat was realized through analyzing the environmental changes in the area. Other natural hazards that pose a threat to organizations are earthquakes, snow, heavy rains and stormy winds (MCCONNELL, 2008). This threat leads to instability in offering services and a temporary closure of the treatment plant to repair and build better structures that can withstand future storms. There was total damage of the distribution systems and storage facilities that lead to high costs of repairing them and also replacing them. The ideal method used to identify the threat is vulnerability matrix Plant Failure There was a critical plant failure due to damaged structures. This risk was a major threat to the organization as it incurred the organization significant losses. This failure was essential because this structures had not undergone maintenance for an extended period. This method was realized after assessing the physical vulnerabilities. The critical failure of the plant lead to a major setback in productivity, and the organization realized massive losses which up to date is still trying to recuperate. Financial Threat Galveston central wastewater treatment plant faced the threat of finances. This threat was from the profits fluctuations. This condition was realized due to the decrease in productivity after the facilities in the plant were damaged by hurricanes. This threat was recognized from assessing the notional vulnerabilities in the organization (LE COURTOIS 2014). The decrease in profits leads the organization to incur more costs in re-branding the organization a new. Production Threat In this organization, this threat arises from the turnover of employees in the organization after the environmental hazard stroke the treatment plant. This risk is realized in the reduction of workforce thus a likely hood to lower productivity. This threat comes with other risks such as loss of customers as well as a realization of small profits. Critical Valnerabilities There three categories of vulnerabilities applicable to Galveston central wastewater treatment plant. These categories include; notional, physical and personal vulnerabilities. Hypothetical vulnerabilities are those that involves finances, plant failure, and disruption of activities in business and business reputation. Physical vulnerabilities are those that are involved in facilities and equipment in the business, environment and climate change as well as money. Also, personal weaknesses include turnover of employees and injury within the organization among others. These vulnerabilities can be managed using the following strategies; risk transfer, risk control, risk acceptance as well as risk avoidance (WISNER 2012). Precautionary Analysis Precautionary analysis acts as an immediate feedback to the new. This tool targets on preventing harm rather than managing it when it happens. This study involves the protecting of a new occurrence. This is a policy that seeks to protect the health of individuals as well as the environment.it does not call for specific measures, but it is close to governance, it consists of three factors: intermediate between innovation and precaution, management in risk and combinations of science policy (BOURGUIGNON 2016). The principle of precautionary enables those making decisions in the organization to take into account preventive measures when scientific evidence is uncertain in environmental and human hazards. The precautionary analysis is made up of various elements that aim at preventing harm from reversing and causing damage to humans and the environment. These elements include: Right to Knowledge The public around the organization has a right to information pertaining the hazards to the environment and to the people that might occur due to processes in the organization. The organization is responsible for educating the society around. Democratic Decision Making Decisions made through the precautionary analysis tool should be democratic and transparent. It should be backed up by reliable information. Costs Incurred In every decision-making process, all decisions made should consider all costs incurred and other costs likely to occur. Prompt Action There is need to act promptly to prevent harm. Everyone is responsible for taking action, that is, the business, the public, the society as well as the government. In this case, the top-down technique is applied in the precautionary analysis in order to come up with the appropriate decisions by analyzing the community around as well as using the augmented SWOT analysis. For the above-assessed vulnerability, the following are the preventive recommendations put in place: First there is need to construct a structure that withstands environmental factors especially winds up to 140mph. This recommendation will cater for the protection of health for the working staff as well as offer security for its customers. This structures should portray the high level of efficiency to avoid the occurrence of the same incident in future. Secondly, due to the contamination caused by the rupture of this structures during the hurricane storm, the organization should employ the use of ultraviolet sanitation facility. This disinfection strategy would be a new approach used in the industry (JABLONOWSKI 2006). Thirdly, the recommended new buildings of the Galveston central wastewater treatment plant should be constructed in a high raised and elevated position to curb future storms from damaging this structures. Lastly, this organization should put measures to educate its employees on the likely risks to face the organization and train them on how to mitigate the risks to reduce the employee turnover. Fourthly, the directors of the Galveston main wastewater treatment plant should think of changing the organization to a place that is not affected by environmental hazards to prevent this harm from taking place once more. This recommendation aims at targeting to solve this problem of natural hazards completely. Another fifth way is through characterizing risks, this way, the organization can determine what risks are likely to face an organization in future and aid in making progressive decisions on how to curb this risks in preventing reoccurrence. Lastly, there is also need to establish control options in the decision-making process in finding ways to prevent harm to humans and the environment. References ADAM, AKV 2016, Strategy and success factors of business schools.. 18th ed. Wiesbaden: Springer Gabler. ANDERSON, MGE 2013, Community -Based Landslide Risk Reduction: Managing Disasters in Small Steps. 8th ed. Washington, D.C., World Bank. Anon, 2013, Detection of intrusions and malware, and vulnerability assessment. 18th ed. Berlin, Springer-Verlag. BOURGUIGNON, D 2016, The precautionary principle: definitions, applications, and governance: in-depth analysis.. 18th ed. Luxembourg: Publications Office. 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